One of the well-known treasures of XXth century was found in the Northern Afghanistan- “Golden Hill” or Tillya-tepe.

Tillya-tepe provided researchers with samples of ensembles of adornments. Here in 1978, a joint soviet-afghan expedition uncovered six rich burials (five female and one male), in which many adornments that date back to the begging of this era were preserved. Altogether, 20000 gold jewelry articles with insertions of precious and semi-precious stones were found. The female complexes differ stylistically from each other reflective not only of the differences in the ethnicity of the buried women but also of the differences in fashion. The abundance of jewelry articles in these burials suggests the existence of a jewelry workshop, for such a large amount of sew-on disks could have only been made by several masters.

The findings from Tillya-tepe are not separate articles, but rather complexes, ensembles of jewelry articles .This period is characterized by distinct artistic features that resulted in the formation of a unique style, significantly different from those preceding. It is possible that the “push” for the formation of a different new style in jewelry art was made by the nomads, in conjunction with the ever-present traditions of Hellenistic Greece, well known for their great mastery of portraying live nature. Most of the jewelry articles from Tillya-tepe have very “rough” edges, differing in their illusory volume created by the use of insertions and further characterized by reduction of proportions. Figurative images predominate, although it is still possible to find stylized images, e.g. freezes and circular compositions. Mythological content is very common and displays an overall increase in thematic diversity than the preceding periods. We encounter images of lions, boars, snakes, as well as fish and birds. The birds, as well as the four-legged animals, are portrayed in profile. People, on the other hand, were portrayed facing the spectator, in some cases in a half-turn, with specific gestures and in motion. All of these features reflect the new historical, political, economical and ideological events at the turn of the century

All of the articles from Tillya-tepe demonstrate the mastery and development of variety of traditions which found their reflections in all types of art and architecture of the period. The rich architectural décor of the relieves of Airtam,[1] drawings and sculpture of Khalchayan,[2] exerted a strong influence on the development of jewelry art of the period, as evident by the great resemblance between architectural relieves and some jewelry articles – disks, suspensions.

A distinct feature of jewelry articles from Tillya-tepe is that they no longer appear as separate adornments, but represent complexes (ensembles), where all types of articles are united both thematically and rhythmically. For example, in the VI burial all of the adornments are related by the theme of love and fertility, while the adornments from the IV burial are made in the same rhythm, repetition of an oval. Even in the first burial it is easy to find an ensemble consisting of a pectoral, a temple pendant, a small ring and variety of disks.

The variety of figurative and decorative elements in rendition of sew-on articles is extraordinary in originality, mastery of execution and utilization of different techniques

The ensemble of the II burial consist of head adornments including hair pins, beautifully made temple suspensions, clasps in the form of Cupids on dolphins, as well as arm bracelets with heads of antelopes on ends, a chest pendant in the form of Aphrodite, a ring, a necklace, a pair of anklets and of course sew-on adornments .[3] All of the articles are tied into an ensemble by a unifying theme of fertility. The articles, however, are very different stylistically (it has been suggested that these differences may be due to the fact that some of the articles were obtained by the nomads during raids). For example, some articles are made in Hellenistic traditions, while others (e.g. bracelets) in the traditions of the “zoomorphic style”. The style of the hair pins is closer to Chinese art. It is also possible that the jewelers were using “citations” from several artistic styles. The bracelets of the given burial were made in accordance with the greatest ancient traditions (see bracelets from Treasure of Oxus). The amazingly realistic portrayal of antelope heads (the eyes of the animals contain insertions of turquoise and garnet) convey the animal’s natural gaze. The ears are closely pressed and the legs are bent as if the animal is ready to jump.

A cast miniature figure of Aphrodite is made in high relief and appears to be a dominant theme in chest adornments. In the XVIII-XX centuries Tajik wore an analogous chest adornment, known as the “khaikal”. In Arabic “khaikal” is a sculptural figurine/image,[4] suggesting the existence of analogous adornments throughout historical periods. The goddess of Tillya-tepe stands in a niche, with Cupid, clinging to her from the right. Her voluptuous body is the embodiment of the sensual beginning, her chest emphasized by girdles and the prominent abdomen clearly outlined. The face shows a unique ethnic type, typical of the adornments from Tillya-tepe: almond-shape eyes, a slight hunch on the nose and wide eyebrows. Thematically the figure o Aphrodite is related to the Cupids on dolphins (the images on the clasps). Monotypic, with different sides turned to the spectator; these (hollow) figures of Cupids are cast using the gorelief technique. The Cupid is sitting upon a fish with features of a dolphin. Splendid, tri-toothed sultans cover the heads of dolphins, while their bodies are covered by indentations meant to indicate fish scales. The masters, who made this adornment, seem to have known about dolphins only through stories and depicted them in accordance with their imagination. A brooch, Tunagish fish-dolphin, was found at the beginning of the XX century in Tashkent.[5] The heads of the winged Cupids with round, “frozen” faces are decorated with wreaths. From under the wreath small locks fall onto the neck, a hair style characteristic of those belonging to the high levels of society, e.g. figure of an “achaemenian king” from the Treasure of Oxus .  Images of Cupids are also known from treasures of Nise, where in the treasury of the arshakian kings an analogous silver statue was found.[6] The full-bodied figures of Cupids from Tillya-tepe, the girdles on their chests and their facial features, resemble the image of Aphrodite suggested that they were made by the same master in one artistic tradition. Clasps served as a unique (rhythmical) transition from the temple suspensions to the figure of Aphrodite

Temple suspensions with a theme convincingly described by G.A. Pugachenkova and L.I. Rempel as the image of the “mistress of dragons” or goddess – guardian of cities (man’s tunic, wall-like crown), have analogies both in sculpture and embroidery.[7] Especially interesting is an identical motive of a goddess with dragons on a silk embroidery dating to the III-IV centuries AD from the burial Kara-Bulack in Kirgiziya (cloth covered the face of the deceased).[8] It seems that here, the burial customs were similar to those of Tillya-tepe: the bodies of the deceased were covered by cloths with ornaments embroider in gold. On the cloth from Kara-Bulak a woman, in a long dress and a crown, is portrayed holding in her extended arms, two dragons with long noses, open jaws, two fronts and one back leg. A goddess holding snake-like and other living organisms is a widespread motif in the ancient world, its territory stretching from the Mediterranean all the way to the south-eastern Asia (for example, see goddess from the island of Crete, a suspension from the Treasure of Aegin).[9] The suspensions are grandiose. The images of the beasts resemble those on the adornments from the Treasure of Oxus. Their casting required great mastery, both in making the model and its details. The composition is ‘written’ into an almost square form. A specific emotional state conveyed by the incrustations of turquoise and almadin. After achieving the desired form of the gem, removing uneven edges and inserting it into the article, the jeweler would finish the work on the gem with flat grinding and light polishing. The combination of red (garnet) and yellow (gold) created emotional tension offset by the delicate bluish color of turquoise. Although it is overloaded with details and incrustations, the heraldic composition is nevertheless harmonious and balanced as a whole. Dynamic, abrupt lines (of the beast) are in contrast with the delicate, smooth lines of the goddess’ figure; the flow from chains is interrupted by round forms of disks and rosettes. The rendition of the goddess does not convey volume, even with active use of color insertions. However, in comparison with articles from the Treasure of Oxus a greater freedom of image can be felt here.

A rhythmic pause to this ensemble is provided by a gold necklace, distinct in its high quality of execution and artistic taste.[10] The hollow beads are molded of thin sheets of gold and are incrusted with turquoise flowers. The ribbed surface of the beads gives the necklace a refined and airy quality. The necklace is also decorated with ivory, probably brought to Bactria from India. The multiple planes of the beads consist of rhombuses, in some case outlined by a double-ring of granulation. The conical clasps of the necklace are abundantly decorated with several rows of triangular shaped granulation, which in some cases make up a rhombus. All of the beads are placed onto leather lace. An analogous necklace is known from findings of the complex Babish-mulla (IV-II BC),[11] confirming the popularity of this type of adornment.

A woman could have been in the III burial, for her ensemble (see supplement) includes a diadem, hair pins, suspensions in the form of horses’ protoms, a necklace, a fastening in the form of “Cupids on dolphins” (see drawing 21), clasps with the image of “warriors,” bracelets with flared ends, a torque, rings, and a variety of sew-on- adornments.[12] The diadem was composed of four strips of gold connected by laces and resembles the kalafs of the skiffs.[13] Analogies to this diadem can be found in the art of Egypt, Lebanon and Crete, where such adornments were placed on the heads of the deceased.[14]

It is possible that the fastenings served as dividers among the various types of clothing. The fastening with cupids could have been placed on the neckline of a dress, while the clasps with warrior images decorated the top layers of clothing. The former, were made in a difficult technique of delicate casting. The reappearance of the images of Cupids on dolphins provides supporting evidence to the notion that gods of antiquity were a significant part of the Kushan pantheon, confirming the deep hellinization of the Central Asian population.[15] The cupids are executed in the Bactrian rather than Hellenistic style, with already familiar facial features (almond-shaped eyes, etc.). Incrustation is used in abundance. Turquoise insertions on the bodies of the fish-dolphins are meant to convey their relation to water, as well as giving them all illusory volume, emphasizing the use of color in creation of form. The tails of the fish resemble a flower. The decorative elements that make up the tail of the fish are analogous to the so-called trees that flank the image of a “warrior,” suggesting that these adornments belong to the hand of one master, working within a determined artistic style

Another article, a clasp with the image of warriors, is one of the best examples of craftsmanship among the articles from Tillya-tepe, unique in mastery of execution, decorative completeness and image perfection. In the burial, the clasp was found next to a torque and probably served as a fastening for a cloak. The figures of “warriors” in full armor (helmet, spear, sword, and shield) resemble the Greek god Ares. The image and clothing of the warriors (ruffled skirt, cloak, sandals) are analogous to the portrayals of gods on the relieves of the temple of Bela in Palmyra.[16] The entire surface of the clasp is ornamental. The composition, slightly shifted off center, transmits inner motion and tension .The figure of the warrior is shown in relief, as if the master ‘removed excessive metal,’ revealing the hidden image. The scene resembles guards next to a gate. The central figure is surrounded by a “frame” ornament (hardly noticeable in the beginning) of a tree with small, winged dragons at its base. The extensively bent body of the dragon is leaning on its back paws, while the contours of the front paws are outlined (on the bottom) by small, slanting incisions that give the appearance of short hair. Similar incisions can be found on the body of a golden goat from the same treasure. These features confirm the existence of a unifying artistic system. Its framework included the above mentioned techniques of portraying animals, e.g. the indication of hair with the use of incisions. It is possible that the use of mirror symmetry in artistic imagery relates to the ancient twin cults.[17] Other adornments, such as the torque and the bracelets with flared ends are very characteristic of the types of articles made by the nomads, because such ends, as noted by N.A. Avanesova, resemble the shepherd’s horn.[18] The series of gold plates from this burial could have composed one ensemble of adornments, as for example in the complex of a female burial from Melitopol (IV century BC).[19] Some of the neck adornments of the III burial are analogous to those found in the II burial. The beads were made using the casting technique, some of them with false granulation. Four beads have turquoise and glazed pottery incrustations. A small gold ring, that concludes the jewelry ensemble of this burial, is analogous to a ring from the first burial. The series of adornments link the three burials, especially the last two, creating a distinct group of articles that make up an ensemble that includes hair adornments: diadems, hair pins, temple suspensions; neck adornments: torques, necklaces; chest adornments: a series of various sew-on brooches of various configurations that at one point made up a multi-level ornament; clasps/fastenings; hand/arm adornments: bracelets, rings; anklets. The entire complex has been preserved until the XX century due to the strength of traditions and the complex processing of metals.

The IV burial is a male burial and will be examined following the analysis of the female burials.

The V burial is not as rich in the number of adornments as the other burials. However, here we come into contact with original types of necklaces, bracelets and earrings (see supplement) that have not been previously encountered, although with some similarities to already known adornments (for example anklets with flared ends). Unique among these objects is a composite necklace with suspensions. Incrusted brooches are attached to a series of beads that alternate with X-like plates resembling horns; the third row of the necklace consists of disks that resemble coins. This is reminiscent of terracotta disks (made in imitation of roman coins) that were extensively used in India as adornments.[20] A bracelet from this burial, with spiral winding (similar to that on the bracelets from Dalverzin-tepe)[21] is also very original. The bracelet is a composite, consisting of three connected oval disks made of amber, blue stone (onto which an image of a standing woman is cut, compare with the image on the disks of a ring – Greece, IV century BC, Teronte Museum)[22], and black and white stone. All sides of the disks are decorated with granulation. In its entirety the ensemble from this burial is stylistically similar to the adornments from the I, II and III burials.

The richest of the six burials is the VI. It is conventionally known as the burial of a ‘skifian queen’. Here we find a complete ensemble of adornments, probably worn by a married woman who belonged to upper class. The head was crowned by a diadem with temple suspensions, the ears decorated with clip-on earrings. We also find a necklace, figurative clasps attached to the clothing rings, wrist adornments and anklets.[23] The diadem, cut out of sheets of gold and plentifully decorated with suspensions (in imitation of leaves), is one of the masterpieces of jewelry art of all periods. Its upper part is shaped like a tree with birds, while the bottom part has an appearance of a band-freeze composition with rosettes, similar to hair pieces from Rhodes.[24]

A double row of temple suspensions serves as a rhythmic transition from hair adornments to neck and chest adornments. The first – analogous to the temple suspensions from the I Tillya-tepe burial; the second – analogous to the temple suspensions from the III burial   . The suspensions are similar in the technique of execution; the latter ones are also thematically related to the ‘goddess with animals’. According to V.I. Sarianidi, it is the image of Anakhita- goddess of nature and all living beings. Analogies to these temple suspensions can be found in adornments from the ‘Tolstoi burial’.[25] Despite the mirror-symmetry of images, already known from other findings, scenes depicted on the suspensions differ from each other in small details: on one – a slightly protruding hip of the goddess gives the figure the appearance of motion, while on another she is completely still. Clip-on earrings with images of cupids complement and conclude the decorations of the head and face of the deceased. All of the queen’s adornments put an accent on a sensual, erotic beginning. In similar fashion the themes of love and marriage are transmitted in a delicate fastening depicting the marriage of Dionysus and Ariadne. The fastening consists of a symmetrical composition made up of two squares. The multi-figured scene is enclosed by a square and follows the shape of the article. Separate images, for example that of flying Nike, relate this article to the style of drawings from Dura-Evropos.[26] The surface of the fastening, overloaded with turquoise, shows a closer resemblance to the art of cloth or carpet- making, then to sculpture or relief. Insets define the major lines of composition. In its entirety (both style and details), the image is close to similar items from Tillya-tepe, confirming their relation to one art school, one craft-shop. For example, the clothing is indicated using previously described methods (see the skirt of a warrior from clasps of the III burial), folds in the form of rectangles with turquoise insertions.[27]

Very unique in the method of execution is a necklace composed of large, oval and hollow gold beads. Each bead is decorated with very delicate five-petal rosettes outlined with granulation, and incrusted with small turquoise insets. The necklace closed using two conic fastening, richly decorated with turquoise hearts outlined by small granulation. The making of such a fragile (sheet gold; incrusted with turquoise) necklace required a highly professional master. Here the mastery of the jeweler is brought to its highest level. The fact that necklaces were also found in the II and III burials, underlie the importance and possibly the necessity of this type of adornment in the aesthetic culture of the ancients. The complex ensemble of the queen is concluded by gold bracelets (on the wrists), oval shaped and open-ended, decorated with sculptured heads of imaginary animals. The open jaws of the animals are incrusted with turquoise. The sculptured heads are hollow and decorated at the base with almond relief bands. These bracelets, with lion heads ends resemble wrist bracelets from the II burial, as well as the bracelets from the Treasure of Oxus[28] and the findings in Zivie.[29]

The analysis of adornments from the I, II, III, V and VI burials allows us to classify them as female burials. The similarities that exist among the adornments confirm the assumption that they were all made in one craft-shop in the traditions of Greco-Bactrian art, represented by a mix of Greek, Indian and ancient Persian elements. These similarities allow to trace the close, mutual conditioning of all decorative elements, unified into one compositional whole.

And finally the IV burial, the male burial. The main, dominating element of this ensemble is a belt of great mastery. The neck was decorated by a pectoral; the arms, by two bracelets; on the legs, actually on the pants, clasps.[30] The costume was heavily decorated with brooches and other sew-on articles, which were probably meant to convey the owner’s status, similarly to the costume of a deceased from Issik.[31] The golden belt served as a sign of distinction (more on significance of the belt can be found in the chapter “Types and forms”). The belt is composed of round relief brooches (nine of them), and a wide gold chain. The brooches are decorated with the image of the goddess Kibela, sitting on a lion, a motif that repeats nine times. However, neither poses nor gestures of the goddess are identical in each depiction, which gives the article a unique expression. Each hollow brooch was probably cast as an individual model, in high, almost round relief of a monotypic composition inscribed into a circle and slightly displaced off center. The image of the lion resembles Indian art, the images in numismatic. In the same burial, a coin with an analogous image of a “fearless lion” was found.[32] As a whole, the ensemble of the IV burial is unified by the round form of all articles and their details, for example the center and the edge of a disk are separated by a chain of hollow spaces meant for inserts, identical to the chain of the pectoral from Dalverzin with Hercules on the intaglio.[33] Similar are the round clasps decorated by a composition with a displaced center. The circle (article form) is portrayed as a laurel wreath with an engraving of a scene of a traveling official. Harnessed into the carriage are imaginary beings, very characteristic in representation to the art of the period. The clasps were made according to the “laws” of mirror symmetry. Inscribed into the main circles is a rectangle, and in it the carriage with a figure of an official. The pose of the traveler, his gaze, the thrown back head transmit a moment of curious contemplation. The beasts are probably carrying the carriage on air (they are portrayed flying). The scene is very expressive and the abundance of turquoise increases the decorativeness of the clasps. The man in the carriage is wearing a long, folding cloak, is narrow-faced, with almond-shaped eyes, a small nose and braid outlined by relief; shorter hair is shown by incisions. V.I. Sarianidi notes the similarities of the clasps to Chinese Art.[34]

The ability to inscribe a predetermined composition into geometric form (in this particular case a circle), the strict balance among its various parts, serves as evidence of artistic maturity and stylistic development. The circular form dominates this ensemble of articles, the form of the necklace is repeated in images; round are sheath of the sword, the falars, etc.[35] The figure of a mountain ram (that crowns the head adornment) is also inscribed into round form.[36] The intent to match jewelry articles with specific features and compositions of the costume led to the formation of unique forms and types of adornments. The masters beautifully felt the ornamental nature of adornments and their relation to costume, to the person’s body, something that found its reflection in the magnitude and rhythmic order of articles, in domination of vertical symmetry, arising from the structure of the human body. The clarity of sculptured forms, the expressiveness of delicate articles and understanding of decorative elements, all point to the high level of craftsmanship of the ancient jewelers.

The delicate harmony of color, the softness and sensuality of lines, bright polychromes, plasticity, rich sculptured modeling, the gracefulness of forms and technical methods that were sharpened and crystallized, were meant to create aesthetic pleasure and admiration. The complexity of artistic metal processing in the early Kushan period, the secrets of technology, styles, and methods, were transmitted by jewelers from generation to generation, deeply preserving traditions. Analysis of articles from Tillya-tepe showed that jewelry art of the surveyed period is characterized by a rich variety of types and forms, as well as methods and styles of artistic metal processing. The flourishing of monumental painting, sculpture and architecture were also important to that time period. Monumental statues, dedicated to “warriors” and native rulers, were erected.

The art of jewelers is one of the most pronounced phenomena in Eastern cultures. It is distinguished in its fulfillment and originality of artistic images, and carries within immense sources of expression. Jewelry art of ancient Afghanistan is a complex, non-synonymous phenomenon. In order to comprehend its conformity to natural laws, as well as such conformity of Afghanistan culture as a whole, it is necessary to understand its meaning on the basis of new information provided by the latest developments and discoveries in science, especially archaeology.
The art of ancient jewelers developed within a united channel of styles with other types of art, enriching and promoting the rise of diverse facets in the artistic trends of the epoch    While historians utilized many of the monuments of jewelry art mainly as peculiar illustrations of one epoch or another, archaeologists described jewelry in relation to other finds, and ethnographers researched the symbolism, semantics, and in later periods, the interrelation of jewelry with clothing. Jewelry of the ancient Afghanistan became known through the works of scientists-archaeologists and their publications.



[1] Trever KV. Monuments of Greco-Bactrian Art. (tables 45-46)
[2] Pugachenkova GA. Khalchayan. Fan, Tashkent 1966; p.144-216
[3] Sarianidi VI. Bactrian Gold.
[4] Pisarchik AK. The national decorative art…p.31
[5] Fahretdinova DA. A song in metal. Tashkent 1986; p.206 ill.133
[6] Pugachenkova GA. The Art of Turkmenistan. Art, Moscow 1967; p.66
[7] Pugachenkova GA, Rempel LI. On the gold of the unknown kings of Tillya-Tepe. From: The history of cultural ties between the nations of Central Asia and India. Tashkent 1988; p.17-24
[8] The History of Kirgiziya. Frunze 1984
[9] Treasure of the British museum. 1975; p.135
[10] Sarianidi VI. Bactrian Gold. p.230-236
[11] Tolstov SP. On the ancient deltas of the Oxus and the Yaksart. Science, Moscow 1962; p.168
[12] Sarianidi VI. Bactrian Gold. p.236-246
[13] Kiev museum of historical antiquities. Kiev 1974; ill.36
[14] L’archaeologie…
[15] Pugachenkova GA. Hercules in Bactria. VDI 1977; 2:77-93
Pugachenkova GA. On the cults of Bactria as reflected in archaeology. VDI 1974; 3:124-135
[16] Schlumberje D. Ibid. p.80
[17] Ivanov VV. Ibid. p.61
[18] Avanesova NA. Unique features of central Asian adornments from the bronze era. 1972; 218:97-111
[19] Kiev museum of historical antiquities. ill.26,27
[20] Sarianidi VI, Koshelenko GA. Coins from the excavations at the necropolis of Tillya-tepe//Ancient India. Science, Moscow 1982; p.307-318
[21] Pugachenkova GA. Artistic treasures of Dalversin-tepe. ill.38
[22] L’archaeologie…p.77
[23] Sarianidi VI. Bactrian Gold…p.254-259
[24] L’archaeologie…p.73
[25] Kiev museum of historical antiquities. ill.35
[26] Schlumberje D. Ibid. p.70
[27] Sarianidi VI. Ibid. p.236-246
[28] Dalton O. Ibid.
[29] Dandamaev MA, Lukonin VG. Le tresor de Zivie-Haarlem. The culture and economy of ancient Iran. Science, Moscow 1950, 1980
[30] Sarianidi VI. Ibid. p.246-252 (#1,2,3,10)
[31] Akishev AK. Necropolis Issik. Art, Moscow 1978; p.48-52
[32] see ill.32
[33] Pugachenkova GA. Artistic treasures…ill.79
[34] Sarianidi VI. Ibid.
[35] Ibid. p.246-252
[36] Ibid. p.246-252, #3

Jewelry of Central Asia Fully dedicated to revealing the history of the ancient jewellery of Central Asia, Dr. Elena Neva has managed to compile a sound historical overview on ancient jewellery of this region. She reveals the different artistic features, symbols, types, forms and technical aspects of the ancient jewelry of Central Asia, ranging from the medieval period to the present time. Author Pages Illustrations Language ISBN                                          Dr. Elena Neva 144 34 English 978-1-934881-11-8 Order >>

Art of Ancient Jewelers The author researching treasures from Central Asia (4 BC-4AD). Readers will go  to a  fascinating trip to Bactria, became familiar with types and forms of ancient jewelry. Learn more about symbols and semantics behind the images.  "Travel" to the past helps better understand the future! Author Pages Illustrations Language ISBN Library of Congress Control Number Dr. Elena Neva 124 34 Russian 978-1-934881-05-7 2008925065 Order >>