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- Artistic Features of Jewelry Art from Central Asia (IV BC-IV AD)
Artistic Features of Jewelry Art from Central Asia (IV BC-IV AD)
- By Neva, Elena
- Published 12 March 2008
- Jewellery - Ethnic
- Unrated
A rhythmic pause to this ensemble is provided by a gold necklace, distinct in its high quality of execution and artistic taste.33 The hollow beads are molded of thin sheets of gold and are incrusted with turquoise flowers. The ribbed surface of the beads gives the necklace a refined and airy quality. The necklace is also decorated with ivory, probably brought to Bactria from India. The multiple planes of the beads consist of rhombuses, in some case outlined by a double-ring of granulation. The conical clasps of the necklace are abundantly decorated with several rows of triangular shaped granulation, which in some cases make up a rhombus. All of the beads are placed onto leather lace. An analogous necklace is known from findings of the complex Babish-mulla (IV-II BC),34 confirming the popularity of this type of adornment.
A woman could have been in the III burial, for her ensemble (see supplement) includes a diadem, hair pins, suspensions in the form of horses’ protoms, a necklace, a fastening in the form of “Cupids on dolphins” (see drawing 21), clasps with the image of “warriors,” bracelets with flared ends, a torque, rings, and a variety of sew-on- adornments.35 The diadem was composed of four strips of gold connected by laces and resembles the kalafs of the skifs.36 Analogies to this diadem can be found in the art of Egypt, Lebanon and Crete, where such adornments were placed on the heads of the deceased.37
It is possible that the fastenings served as dividers among the various types of clothing. The fastening with cupids could have been placed on the neckline of a dress, while the clasps with warrior images decorated the top layers of clothing. The former, were made in a difficult technique of delicate casting. The reappearance of the images of Cupids on dolphins provide supporting evidence to the notion that gods of antiquity were a significant part of the Kushan pantheon, confirming the deep hellinization of the Central Asian population.38 The cupids are executed in the Bactiran rather than Hellenistic style, with already familiar facial features (almond-shaped eyes, etc.). Incrustation is used in abundance. Turquoise insertions on the bodies of the fish-dolphins are meant to convey their relation to water, as well as giving them all illusory volume, emphasizing the use of color in creation of form. The tails of the fish resemble a flower. The decorative elements that make up the tail of the fish are analogous to the so-called trees that flank the image of a “warrior,” suggesting that these adornments belong to the hand of one master, working within a determined artistic style (see ill.14-15).
Another article, a clasp with the image of warriors (see drawing 22), is one of the best examples of craftsmanship among the articles from Tillya-tepe, unique in mastery of execution, decorative completeness and image perfection. In the burial, the clasp was found next to a torque and probably served as a fastening for a cloak. The figures of “warriors” in full armor (helmet, spear, sword, shield) resemble the Greek god Ares. The image and clothing of the warriors (ruffled skirt, cloak, sandals) are analogous to the portrayals of gods on the reliefs of the temple of Bela in Palmire.39 The entire surface of the clasp is ornamental. The composition, slightly shifted off center, transmits inner motion and tension .The figure of the warrior is shown in relief, as if the master ‘removed excessive metal,’ revealing the hidden image. The scene resembles guards next to a gate. The central figure is surrounded by a “frame” ornament (hardly noticeable in the beginning) of a tree with small, winged dragons at its base. The extensively bent body of the dragon is leaning on its back paws, while the contours of the front paws are outlined (on the bottom) by small, slanting incisions that give the appearance of short hair. Similar incisions can be found on the body of a golden goat from the same treasure. These features confirm the existence of a unifying artistic system. Its framework included the above mentioned techniques of portraying animals, e.g. the indication of hair with the use of incisions. It is possible that the use of mirror symmetry in artistic imagery relates to the ancient twin cults.40 Other adornments, such as the torque and the bracelets with flared ends are very characteristic of the types of articles made by the nomads, because such ends, as noted by N.A. Avanesova, resemble the shepherd’s horn.41 The series of gold plates from this burial could have composed one ensemble of adornments, as for example in the complex of a female burial from Melitopol (IV century BC).42 Some of the neck adornments of the III burial are analogous to those found in the II burial. The beads were made using the casting technique, some of them with false granulation. Four beads have turquoise and glazed pottery incrustations (see drawing 23 and ill.19). A small gold ring, that concludes the jewelry ensemble of this burial, is analogous to a ring from the first burial. The series of adornments link the three burials, especially the last two, creating a distinct group of articles that make up an ensemble that includes hair adornments: diadems, hair pins, temple suspensions; neck adornments: torques, necklaces; chest adornments: a series of various sew-on brooches of various configurations that at one point made up a multi-level ornament; clasps/fastenings; hand/arm adornments: bracelets, rings; anklets. The entire complex has been preserved until the XX century due to the strength of traditions and the complex processing of metals.
The IV burial is a male burial and will be examined following the analysis of the female burials.
The V burial is not as rich in the number of adornments as the other burials. However, here we come into contact with original types of necklaces, bracelets and earrings (see supplement) that have not been previously encountered, although with some similarities to already known adornments (for example anklets with flared ends). Unique among these objects is a composite necklace with suspensions. Incrusted brooches are attached to a series of beads that alternate with X-like plates (see drawing 24) resembling horns; the third row of the necklace consists of disks that resemble coins. This is reminiscent of terracotta disks (made in imitation of roman coins) that were extensively used in India as adornments.43 A bracelet from this burial, with spiral winding (similar to that on the bracelets from Dalverzin-tepe)44 is also very original. The bracelet is a composite, consisting of three connected oval disks made of amber, blue stone (onto which an image of a standing woman is cut, compare with the image on the disks of a ring - Greece, IV century BC, Teronte Museum)45, and black and white stone. All sides of the disks are decorated with granulation. In its entirety the ensemble from this burial is stylistically similar to the adornments from the I, II and III burials.
The richest of the six burials is the VI. It is conventionally known as the burial of a ‘skifian queen’. Here we find a complete ensemble of adornments, probably worn by a married woman who belonged to upper class. The head was crowned by a diadem with temple suspensions, the ears decorated with clip-on earrings. We also find a necklace, figurative clasps attached to the clothing rings, wrist adornments and anklets.46 The diadem, cut out of sheets of gold and plentifully decorated with suspensions (in imitation of leaves), is one of the masterpieces of jewelry art of all periods. Its upper part is shaped like a tree with birds, while the bottom part has an appearance of a band-freeze composition with rosets, similar to hair pieces from Rhodus (see ill.33).47
A double row of temple suspensions serves as a rhythmic transition from hair adornments to neck and chest adornments. The first - analogous to the temple suspensions from the I Tillya-tepe burial; the second - analogous to the temple suspensions from the III burial (see ill.30). The suspensions are similar in the technique of execution; the latter ones are also thematically related to the ‘goddess with animals’. According to V.I. Sarianidi, it is the image of Anakhita- goddess of nature and all living beings. Analogies to these temple suspensions can be found in adornments from the ‘Tolstoi burial’.48 Despite the mirror-symmetry of images, already known from other findings, scenes depicted on the suspensions differ from each other in small details: on one - a slightly protruding hip of the goddess gives the figure the appearance of motion, while on another she is completely still (see ill.30). Clip-on earrings with images of cupids (see drawing 25) complement and conclude the decorations of the head and face of the deceased. All of the queen’s adornments put an accent on a sensual, erotic beginning. In similar fashion the themes of love and marriage are transmitted in a delicate fastening depicting the marriage of Dionysus and Ariadne (see drawing 26). The fastening consists of a symmetrical composition made up of two squares. The multi-figured scene is enclosed by a square and follows the shape of the article. Separate images, for example that of flying Nike, relate this article to the style of drawings from Dura-Evropos.49 The surface of the fastening, overloaded with turquoise, shows a closer resemblance to the art of cloth or carpet- making, then to sculpture or relief. Insets define the major lines of composition. In its entirety (both style and details), the image is close to similar items from Tillya-tepe, confirming their relation to one art school, one craft-shop. For example, the clothing is indicated using previously described methods (see the skirt of a warrior from clasps of the III burial), folds in the form of rectangles with turquoise insertions.50
Very unique in the method of execution is a necklace composed of large, oval and hollow gold beads. Each bead is decorated with very delicate five-petal rosets outlined with granulation, and incrusted with small turquoise insets. The necklace closed using two conic fastening, richly decorated with turquoise hearts outlined by small granulation (see ill.24). The making of such a fragile (sheet gold; incrusted with turquoise) necklace required a highly professional master. Here the mastery of the jeweler is brought to its highest level. The fact that necklaces were also found in the II and III burials, underlie the importance and possibly the necessity of this type of adornment in the aesthetic culture of the ancients. The complex ensemble of the queen is concluded by gold bracelets (on the wrists), oval shaped and open-ended, decorated with sculptured heads of imaginary animals. The open jaws of the animals are incrusted with turquoise. The sculptured heads are hollow and decorated at the base with almond relief bands. These bracelets, with lion heads ends resemble wrist bracelets from the II burial, as well as the bracelets from the Treasure of Oxus51 and the findings in Zivie.52
The analysis of adornments from the I, II, III, V and VI burials allows us to classify them as female burials. The similarities that exist among the adornments confirm the assumption that they were all made in one craft-shop in the traditions of Greeko-Bactrian art, represented by a mix of Greek, Indian and ancient Persian elements. These similarities allow to trace the close, mutual conditioning of all decorative elements, unified into one compositional whole.
And finally the IV burial, the male burial. The main, dominating element of this ensemble is a belt of great mastery (see drawing 27). The neck was decorated by a pectoral (see drawing 28); the arms, by two bracelets (see drawing 29); on the legs, actually on the pants, clasps (see drawing 30).53 The costume was heavily decorated with brooches and other sew-on articles, which were probably meant to convey the owner’s status, similarly to the costume of a deceased from Issik.54 The golden belt served as a sign of distinction (more on significance of the belt can be found in the chapter “Types and forms”). The belt is composed of round relief brooches (nine of them, drawing 31) and a wide gold chain. The brooches are decorated with the image of the goddess Kibela, sitting on a lion, a motif that repeats nine times. However, neither poses nor gestures of the goddess are identical in each depiction, which gives the article a unique expression. Each hollow brooch was probably cast as an individual model, in high, almost round relief of a monotypic composition inscribed into a circle and slightly displaced off center. The image of the lion resembles Indian art, the images in numismatic. In the same burial, a coin with an analogous image of a “fearless lion” was found.55 As a whole, the ensemble of the IV burial is unified by the round form of all articles and their details, for example the center and the edge of a disk are separated by a chain of hollow spaces meant for inserts, identical to the chain of the pectoral from Dalverzin with Hercules on the intaglio.56 Similar are the round clasps (see ill.22) decorated by a composition with a displaced center. The circle (article form) is portrayed as a laurel wreath with an engraving of a scene of a traveling official. Harnessed into the carriage are imaginary beings, very characteristic in representation to the art of the period. The clasps were made according to the “laws” of mirror symmetry. Inscribed into the main circles is a rectangle, and in it the carriage with a figure of an official. The pose of the traveler, his gaze, the thrown back head transmit a moment of curious contemplation. The beasts are probably carrying the carriage on air (they are portrayed flying). The scene is very expressive and the abundance of turquoise increases the decorativeness of the clasps. The man in the carriage is wearing a long, folding cloak, is narrow-faced, with almond-shaped eyes, a small nose and braid outlined by relief; shorter hair is shown by incisions. V.I. Sarianidi notes the similarities of the clasps to Chinese Art (see supplement).57
A woman could have been in the III burial, for her ensemble (see supplement) includes a diadem, hair pins, suspensions in the form of horses’ protoms, a necklace, a fastening in the form of “Cupids on dolphins” (see drawing 21), clasps with the image of “warriors,” bracelets with flared ends, a torque, rings, and a variety of sew-on- adornments.35 The diadem was composed of four strips of gold connected by laces and resembles the kalafs of the skifs.36 Analogies to this diadem can be found in the art of Egypt, Lebanon and Crete, where such adornments were placed on the heads of the deceased.37
It is possible that the fastenings served as dividers among the various types of clothing. The fastening with cupids could have been placed on the neckline of a dress, while the clasps with warrior images decorated the top layers of clothing. The former, were made in a difficult technique of delicate casting. The reappearance of the images of Cupids on dolphins provide supporting evidence to the notion that gods of antiquity were a significant part of the Kushan pantheon, confirming the deep hellinization of the Central Asian population.38 The cupids are executed in the Bactiran rather than Hellenistic style, with already familiar facial features (almond-shaped eyes, etc.). Incrustation is used in abundance. Turquoise insertions on the bodies of the fish-dolphins are meant to convey their relation to water, as well as giving them all illusory volume, emphasizing the use of color in creation of form. The tails of the fish resemble a flower. The decorative elements that make up the tail of the fish are analogous to the so-called trees that flank the image of a “warrior,” suggesting that these adornments belong to the hand of one master, working within a determined artistic style (see ill.14-15).
Another article, a clasp with the image of warriors (see drawing 22), is one of the best examples of craftsmanship among the articles from Tillya-tepe, unique in mastery of execution, decorative completeness and image perfection. In the burial, the clasp was found next to a torque and probably served as a fastening for a cloak. The figures of “warriors” in full armor (helmet, spear, sword, shield) resemble the Greek god Ares. The image and clothing of the warriors (ruffled skirt, cloak, sandals) are analogous to the portrayals of gods on the reliefs of the temple of Bela in Palmire.39 The entire surface of the clasp is ornamental. The composition, slightly shifted off center, transmits inner motion and tension .The figure of the warrior is shown in relief, as if the master ‘removed excessive metal,’ revealing the hidden image. The scene resembles guards next to a gate. The central figure is surrounded by a “frame” ornament (hardly noticeable in the beginning) of a tree with small, winged dragons at its base. The extensively bent body of the dragon is leaning on its back paws, while the contours of the front paws are outlined (on the bottom) by small, slanting incisions that give the appearance of short hair. Similar incisions can be found on the body of a golden goat from the same treasure. These features confirm the existence of a unifying artistic system. Its framework included the above mentioned techniques of portraying animals, e.g. the indication of hair with the use of incisions. It is possible that the use of mirror symmetry in artistic imagery relates to the ancient twin cults.40 Other adornments, such as the torque and the bracelets with flared ends are very characteristic of the types of articles made by the nomads, because such ends, as noted by N.A. Avanesova, resemble the shepherd’s horn.41 The series of gold plates from this burial could have composed one ensemble of adornments, as for example in the complex of a female burial from Melitopol (IV century BC).42 Some of the neck adornments of the III burial are analogous to those found in the II burial. The beads were made using the casting technique, some of them with false granulation. Four beads have turquoise and glazed pottery incrustations (see drawing 23 and ill.19). A small gold ring, that concludes the jewelry ensemble of this burial, is analogous to a ring from the first burial. The series of adornments link the three burials, especially the last two, creating a distinct group of articles that make up an ensemble that includes hair adornments: diadems, hair pins, temple suspensions; neck adornments: torques, necklaces; chest adornments: a series of various sew-on brooches of various configurations that at one point made up a multi-level ornament; clasps/fastenings; hand/arm adornments: bracelets, rings; anklets. The entire complex has been preserved until the XX century due to the strength of traditions and the complex processing of metals.
The IV burial is a male burial and will be examined following the analysis of the female burials.
The V burial is not as rich in the number of adornments as the other burials. However, here we come into contact with original types of necklaces, bracelets and earrings (see supplement) that have not been previously encountered, although with some similarities to already known adornments (for example anklets with flared ends). Unique among these objects is a composite necklace with suspensions. Incrusted brooches are attached to a series of beads that alternate with X-like plates (see drawing 24) resembling horns; the third row of the necklace consists of disks that resemble coins. This is reminiscent of terracotta disks (made in imitation of roman coins) that were extensively used in India as adornments.43 A bracelet from this burial, with spiral winding (similar to that on the bracelets from Dalverzin-tepe)44 is also very original. The bracelet is a composite, consisting of three connected oval disks made of amber, blue stone (onto which an image of a standing woman is cut, compare with the image on the disks of a ring - Greece, IV century BC, Teronte Museum)45, and black and white stone. All sides of the disks are decorated with granulation. In its entirety the ensemble from this burial is stylistically similar to the adornments from the I, II and III burials.
The richest of the six burials is the VI. It is conventionally known as the burial of a ‘skifian queen’. Here we find a complete ensemble of adornments, probably worn by a married woman who belonged to upper class. The head was crowned by a diadem with temple suspensions, the ears decorated with clip-on earrings. We also find a necklace, figurative clasps attached to the clothing rings, wrist adornments and anklets.46 The diadem, cut out of sheets of gold and plentifully decorated with suspensions (in imitation of leaves), is one of the masterpieces of jewelry art of all periods. Its upper part is shaped like a tree with birds, while the bottom part has an appearance of a band-freeze composition with rosets, similar to hair pieces from Rhodus (see ill.33).47
A double row of temple suspensions serves as a rhythmic transition from hair adornments to neck and chest adornments. The first - analogous to the temple suspensions from the I Tillya-tepe burial; the second - analogous to the temple suspensions from the III burial (see ill.30). The suspensions are similar in the technique of execution; the latter ones are also thematically related to the ‘goddess with animals’. According to V.I. Sarianidi, it is the image of Anakhita- goddess of nature and all living beings. Analogies to these temple suspensions can be found in adornments from the ‘Tolstoi burial’.48 Despite the mirror-symmetry of images, already known from other findings, scenes depicted on the suspensions differ from each other in small details: on one - a slightly protruding hip of the goddess gives the figure the appearance of motion, while on another she is completely still (see ill.30). Clip-on earrings with images of cupids (see drawing 25) complement and conclude the decorations of the head and face of the deceased. All of the queen’s adornments put an accent on a sensual, erotic beginning. In similar fashion the themes of love and marriage are transmitted in a delicate fastening depicting the marriage of Dionysus and Ariadne (see drawing 26). The fastening consists of a symmetrical composition made up of two squares. The multi-figured scene is enclosed by a square and follows the shape of the article. Separate images, for example that of flying Nike, relate this article to the style of drawings from Dura-Evropos.49 The surface of the fastening, overloaded with turquoise, shows a closer resemblance to the art of cloth or carpet- making, then to sculpture or relief. Insets define the major lines of composition. In its entirety (both style and details), the image is close to similar items from Tillya-tepe, confirming their relation to one art school, one craft-shop. For example, the clothing is indicated using previously described methods (see the skirt of a warrior from clasps of the III burial), folds in the form of rectangles with turquoise insertions.50
Very unique in the method of execution is a necklace composed of large, oval and hollow gold beads. Each bead is decorated with very delicate five-petal rosets outlined with granulation, and incrusted with small turquoise insets. The necklace closed using two conic fastening, richly decorated with turquoise hearts outlined by small granulation (see ill.24). The making of such a fragile (sheet gold; incrusted with turquoise) necklace required a highly professional master. Here the mastery of the jeweler is brought to its highest level. The fact that necklaces were also found in the II and III burials, underlie the importance and possibly the necessity of this type of adornment in the aesthetic culture of the ancients. The complex ensemble of the queen is concluded by gold bracelets (on the wrists), oval shaped and open-ended, decorated with sculptured heads of imaginary animals. The open jaws of the animals are incrusted with turquoise. The sculptured heads are hollow and decorated at the base with almond relief bands. These bracelets, with lion heads ends resemble wrist bracelets from the II burial, as well as the bracelets from the Treasure of Oxus51 and the findings in Zivie.52
The analysis of adornments from the I, II, III, V and VI burials allows us to classify them as female burials. The similarities that exist among the adornments confirm the assumption that they were all made in one craft-shop in the traditions of Greeko-Bactrian art, represented by a mix of Greek, Indian and ancient Persian elements. These similarities allow to trace the close, mutual conditioning of all decorative elements, unified into one compositional whole.
And finally the IV burial, the male burial. The main, dominating element of this ensemble is a belt of great mastery (see drawing 27). The neck was decorated by a pectoral (see drawing 28); the arms, by two bracelets (see drawing 29); on the legs, actually on the pants, clasps (see drawing 30).53 The costume was heavily decorated with brooches and other sew-on articles, which were probably meant to convey the owner’s status, similarly to the costume of a deceased from Issik.54 The golden belt served as a sign of distinction (more on significance of the belt can be found in the chapter “Types and forms”). The belt is composed of round relief brooches (nine of them, drawing 31) and a wide gold chain. The brooches are decorated with the image of the goddess Kibela, sitting on a lion, a motif that repeats nine times. However, neither poses nor gestures of the goddess are identical in each depiction, which gives the article a unique expression. Each hollow brooch was probably cast as an individual model, in high, almost round relief of a monotypic composition inscribed into a circle and slightly displaced off center. The image of the lion resembles Indian art, the images in numismatic. In the same burial, a coin with an analogous image of a “fearless lion” was found.55 As a whole, the ensemble of the IV burial is unified by the round form of all articles and their details, for example the center and the edge of a disk are separated by a chain of hollow spaces meant for inserts, identical to the chain of the pectoral from Dalverzin with Hercules on the intaglio.56 Similar are the round clasps (see ill.22) decorated by a composition with a displaced center. The circle (article form) is portrayed as a laurel wreath with an engraving of a scene of a traveling official. Harnessed into the carriage are imaginary beings, very characteristic in representation to the art of the period. The clasps were made according to the “laws” of mirror symmetry. Inscribed into the main circles is a rectangle, and in it the carriage with a figure of an official. The pose of the traveler, his gaze, the thrown back head transmit a moment of curious contemplation. The beasts are probably carrying the carriage on air (they are portrayed flying). The scene is very expressive and the abundance of turquoise increases the decorativeness of the clasps. The man in the carriage is wearing a long, folding cloak, is narrow-faced, with almond-shaped eyes, a small nose and braid outlined by relief; shorter hair is shown by incisions. V.I. Sarianidi notes the similarities of the clasps to Chinese Art (see supplement).57